Literacy Now

Digital literacy involves dealing with multimodal texts in many different communicative situations while using a range of communicative resources such as images, colors, videos, sounds, and graphics. It also involves respectfully communicating with people from different cultures in addition to those with different lifestyles.

Writing and reading digital texts

As writers, we carefully select certain words and organize these ideas into logical paragraphs. Beyond these textual writing practices, however, we also need to plan the text’s graphic design. As part of planning, multimodal choices are unlimited: What font will we use? What colors should be in the background? What images might we use, and where should we place them in relation to the text? Will we add movies, animations, or hyperlinks? If so, where should we insert them, and how should they appear for the reader? Is there any benefit to organizing the information with a navigational menu?

Consequently, reading and understanding ideas designed by a multimodal writer requires attention to each of these elements in addition to how to effectively connect them to better understand why they are assembled together and what meanings they convey as a whole.

Multimodal texts: every time, everywhere

Multimodality is a basic feature of texts, according to Gunther Kress, an Australian researcher who highlights elements of multimodality in his work. However, as teachers, we may sometimes treat multimodal text features as superfluous; neglecting to call students’ attention to the important meaning(s) they convey. In Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design, Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen remind educators of the need to consciously help students develop the ability to make sense of all of the multimodal languages blended or “orchestrated” into a text.

These efforts can more actively foster students’ critical literacy. As Jay Lemke wrote in his 2006 handbook chapter titled, Towards Critical Multimedia Literacy: Technology, Research, and Politics:

Critical literacy needs to respond to these historic changes [in digital texts]. We need a broader definition of literacy itself, one that includes all literate practices, regardless of medium. Books-on-tape are as much literate works as are printed books. Scripted films and television programs are no less products of literate culture in their performances than they were as texts. In printed advertisements, the message toward which we need to take a critical stance is conveyed not just by the textual copy, nor even by the copy and the images, but by the interaction of each with the other, so that the meaning of the words is different with the images than without them, and that of the image together with the words distinct from what it might have been alone. In the multimodal medium of the Web, the message is less the medium than it is the multiplication of meanings across media.

Hands-on multimodality

Focusing on multimodality does not require radically different ways of teaching nor does it require a computer. Even simple activities can open students’ minds to the power of images. I (Ana Elisa) have found that asking students to compose a set of directions for how to play Tic-tac-toe can produce some interesting results. Many students try to give instructions using only words, and they find it difficult to effectively communicate all of the steps. Some students ask for permission to include drawings in their directions and find they are much more successful. Taking time as a class to compare various forms of instructions creates the opportunity for rich conversations around the power of images as part of a meaning-making experience. I report on an analysis of these experiences in my book Textos Multimodais: Leitura e Produção or, in English, Multimodal Texts: Reading & Writing.

These kinds of experiences are only the tip of the iceberg! Continued experiences with multimodal text features open students’ minds to the role that multimodality plays in reading and writing.

To learn more, view a video in which Gunther Kress talks about multimodality. You might also enjoy this video in which Mary Kalantzis and Bill Cope explore the multiple modes of representing meaning in today’s media.

Carla Viana Coscarelli is a professor in the School of Language Arts at Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG) in Brazil and coordinator of Projeto Redigir/UFMG. Ana Elisa Ribeiro is a writer and a professor in the Department of Language and Technology of Federal Center of Technological Education of Minas Gerais.

Take a moment to think about the last photo taken on your cell phone or device. When shared with others, photos stimulate lots of recall and discussion. Have you noticed that when someone is in a photo he or she moves closer or zooms in to get a better glimpse and the person listens more intently to the retelling of the photo’s context or story? Similarly, photos capturing students engaged in special moments, events, or activities provide educators with powerful opportunities to actively involve students in meaningful and highly motivational oral language, reading, and writing experiences.

A photograph can be a powerful motivator and memory stimulator to retrieve specialized vocabulary and oral language conventions contextualized in an event. Oral retelling embedded within the activity and composed in text next to a photograph scaffolds reading. When photos are uploaded to apps, social media sites, or printed and assembled into personalized books, students engage further in important rereading activities that stimulate reading development.

Use photos to learn a new language

Depending on interest and needs, text composed near a photo might include specialized vocabulary, phrases, sight words, or sentences that reinforce grammatical structure. Recently, this technique was used in class while learning Spanish. We constructed various reading materials using photographs from Costa Rica. Text composed below a photo showed us standing next to a green tree to learn the Spanish word verde. When a monkey was outside our bedroom window, we took its photo to focus on learning animal names such as mono. Other photos and text consisted of learning names for food and everyday conversational phrases. Using QuickVoice Recorder, we recorded oral rereadings to measure proficiency in speaking Spanish. 

Develop vocabulary

Educators can purposefully sprinkle Tier Two words into conversations and use a camera to photograph events. For example, while children were eating spaghetti at an after-school program, a staff member used the words scrumptious, morsels, and devour to describe how and what the children ate. Later, the photos were projected on the wall and children were encouraged to use Tier Two words in sentences to talk about or act out the event in the photograph. Photos were also printed and added to a vocabulary wall for “reading around the room” activities.

Motivate secondary students

Screenshots of images viewed on the Internet or photographs taken with a camera of a particular topic can be imported to an app. Pic Talk offers a comic style way to create speech bubbles, to bring words to life, and showcase learning. The app offers lots of editing tools to personalize learning and can be shared on social media sites, sent as a text message, or e-mailed.

Support emergent and beginning readers at home

Photographs capturing children in activities provide indispensable access to materials to reinforce reading skills. A series of photographs might be taken of a child working in a family garden. Photos and oral retellings dictated from a child to an adult are typed next to each photograph telling how the soil was prepared and how the seeds were planted and watered, telling about first sprout sightings, and telling about how much the vines grew when measured by inches and feet. Photos can be uploaded to Read With Me Kids Book Maker and a personalized picture book created. Words are highlighted, and books can be read online with family. Photos can also be printed and combined into a book titled “My First Garden” and uploaded to Wix, Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter for global sharing with family members and friends. 

Encourage reading and writing in school

Teachers can keep a camera nearby to capture special moments and give students something to talk, write, and read about. For example, photos of playground rules can be projected onto a dry erase board or interactive whiteboard. Children’s oral statements are immediately typed or written under the photo by the teacher, and students choral or echo read words and sentences while teacher tracks text with a pointer or a cursor. Such experiences are further reinforced when photographs are uploaded to a class webpage or when printed and reread to peers and family members. Important oral language, academic language, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension are integrated into meaningful literacy experiences.

Tammy Ryan has over 25 years of teaching experience. She is an associate professor of reading education at Jacksonville University, where she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in literacy. Her research focuses on beginning readers, digital learning, and international teaching experiences.

This article is part of a series from the International Literacy Association’s Technology in Literacy Education Special Interest Group (TILE-SIG).

“No longer is it enough to be able to read the printed word; children, youth, and adults, too, need the ability to critically interpret the powerful images of a multimedia culture. Audio and video literacy are key factors required of today’s students to interpret and produce multimedia,” as Northern Illinois University’s Sharon E. Smaldino said. Audiobooks are a proven literacy resource, which is why they’ve been used in classrooms for decades; however, using audio beyond the audiobook offers many advantages to classroom teachers. For example, audio is inexpensive, readily available, easy to store, and portable. Additionally, audio can be used to stimulate learning or to assist a struggling student. In the classroom, audio is typically used in listening activities; however, there are many ways students can record their own audio as a way to develop literacy skills.

Voice recording is a flexible tool that allows students to record their learning as well as build fluency skills. Voice recording can be completed on any device (tablet, laptop, smartphone, etc.) using free voice recording apps. Voice Memos is an easy-to-use app that comes preloaded on iOS devices. I have found that voice recording can be beneficial to fluency development. By allowing students to record their own reading, they have the ability to play it back and listen to themselves and self-check for fluency. Oftentimes after self-assessing, my students would rerecord their reading and make adjustments to produce a fluent reading. This same concept works very well with Readers Theatre performances too.

Voice recording is also a great way to document learning. Students can record their thinking about a topic or the content that they have learned. This is especially useful as an alternative to written assignments for young children, second language students, or struggling students with writing skills that are not fully developed.

A podcast is defined as making a digital audio file accessible. I have used podcasts successfully with all ages of  students from elementary to graduate level. My elementary students would record their weekly Readers Theatre to be posted on the classroom website. This provided an opportunity for students to practice their fluency skills as they rerecorded until they had the perfect performance. It also gave them a purpose for reading because families and friends in the outside world had access to listen to it.

One of my favorite assignments for my reading graduate students is the journal article critique podcast. Students choose a content-related article to critique, recording their critique in a podcast rather than in writing. I set forth guidelines for the critique itself and also for the podcast. The recording needs to be at least 1.5 minutes long but not exceed 2.5 minutes. The reader’s voice must be clear, and there cannot be any extraneous noise in the background. My students are reluctant to use the technology at first, but after they complete the assignment, I have found that it is one of their favorites, too. Many see it as a great way to teach summarization skills, as the time limits of the podcast really force the authors to determine the most important aspects of the text. My graduate students see this as an activity they can use immediately in their own classrooms. The completed podcasts are posted on our course discussion board. Students are required to respond to the podcasts of at least two of their peers, thus giving the assignment a real-world purpose instead of just writing another paper to be submitted for only the instructor to read.

Both teachers and students can use various types of audio to enhance learning opportunities using minimal technology. The ways audio can be integrated into literacy instruction are limitless!

Kristin Webber is a veteran teacher with over 20 years of experience. Currently, she is an associate professor in the Department of Early Childhood and Reading at Edinboro University, where she teaches both undergraduate and graduate courses in literacy. She also serves as the Program Head for the Graduate Reading Program. Kristin has taught at every level from preschool to high school, and her research interests include the new literacies and instructional technology integration in teacher education programs.

This article is part of a series from the International Literacy Association’s Technology in Literacy Education Special Interest Group (TILE-SIG).

How much do you trust what you read online and in social networks? It is likely that of digital texts you obtain as you read, search, and sift through the internet has been handpicked especially for you. This is because without you knowing it, you are in a filter bubble, which could limit your—and your students’—worldview and the connections you make online. Although we live in a connected world where the Web affords unprecedented learning opportunities to make information plentiful and put experts at our fingertips, there can be pitfalls along the way.

Living in a filter bubble

Before you even start searching online, websites and search engines have already compiled information about you based on things like previous search history. Every search shows you the output of a computer-based process called an algorithm. The websites and social networks you use for research, news gathering, and watching cat videos increasingly use algorithms to filter the results to make them more personalized . Search engines, news sites, or social networks provide you with what they think you want to see, not with the broad selection of what is out there.

When you search online, search algorithms anticipate what you are looking for to provide the results more quickly. However, as these algorithms record which texts you read, you are given an  incomplete idea of what is happening in the world around you. When people gravitate to ideas that are familiar and to those that align to an existing perspectives, they develop a confirmation bias—a “tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities.” This is increasingly problematic given the recent rise in fake news and disinformation sites available online.

An example from Facebook

If you ever wondered why you have thousands of Facebook friends, but you see the same few  friends in your feed, it’s because the Facebook algorithms have determined from your interaction history that these are the friends whose posts you want to see. If you don’t see anything at all from other people, the algorithms have once again determined you don’t want to see posts from those people. Facebook is just one example of the multiple ways in which algorithms try to determine what you want to see  and thus tailor the information to you.

While on the subject of Facebook, let’s dig in a bit deeper. You’ll have to login to Facebook to see your ad preferences. Ad preferences are compiled from your posts, likes, and collection of friends on the network. They also track you as you move and search elsewhere online. Those little buttons you see on other websites asking you to “like” their page on Facebook are tracking you as you move across the Web. You don’t even have to be logged in for the social network to keep track of your history, and Facebook is not the only company doing this.

While you’re on your Facebook ad preferences page, click through the different tabs to see what information the social network has about you. They sell all of this information to advertisers. Facebook has its own determination of your political views based on your activity. Under the Interests tab, click on the Lifestyle and Culture tab. In this section, you might find a box titled US Politics or the appropriate political association for wherever you live; this information is used by advertisers and political campaigns to send you news, ads, and posts containing their message.

What can you do?

For the most part, there isn’t much that you can do to break free from this filter bubble other than removing yourself from social media entirely. Many sites are increasingly using personalized search tools to manipulate your feed of information. Within Facebook, Twitter, or other social networks, you can address some of this by showing (or teaching) the algorithm you want a diverse set of opinions and information by following individuals or groups that have different perspectives than your own. You can also use a unbiased search engine like DuckDuckGo or routinely use Incognito mode on Google Chrome or on other browsers. Finally, there are Chrome extensions that are great for protecting your privacy and stopping others from tracking you online.

I think the best defense against filter bubbles is simply awareness. Recognize that filter bubbles exist and that they create a very real echo chamber that influences your potential for literacy and learning. You should also discuss this with your students and investigate methods for them to actively interact with individuals or groups with perspectives different from their own. You can start this dialogue by watching Eli Pariser describe the dangers of filter bubbles. From there it needs to be an active fight on the part of every individual to not simply trust that what they are shown online is the full story. Everyone needs to understand the danger of confirmation bias and the filter bubble as they become thoughtful, critically aware, literate individuals.

W. Ian O’Byrne, an ILA member since 2007, is an assistant professor of literacy education at the College of Charleston in South Carolina. His research examines the literacy practices of individuals as they read, write, and communicate in online spaces. He blogs at wiobyrne.com. You can subscribe to his newsletter or podcast to stay up to date on literacy, education, and technology.

This article is part of a series from the International Literacy Association’s Technology in Literacy Education Special Interest Group (TILE-SIG).

Do you know Glenn? Maybe you’ve had Glenn—or an adolescent reader like him—as a student. His reading scores on standardized tests are middle-of-the-pack. But if you shadow Glenn through a typical day, you’ll discover that he’s a reader of eclectic interests with a repertoire of distinct, somewhat idiosyncratic ways of reading he habitually resorts to when reading in particular contexts, for particular purposes.

(Note: “Glenn” is a composite. The following vignettes of Glenn reading draw on interview and think-aloud data collected from two sixth-graders who each described and demonstrated more than 10 different ways of reading they use on a regular basis.)

• Lying on the couch, reading a graphic novel, Hereville, for pleasure, Glenn’s gaze flits across the page, bouncing back and forth between words and pictorial details, adjusting its path from page to page as the layout of panels changes. He enjoys the speed with which the story unfolds. He also enjoys noticing details in the drawings that clash with what a character has said or what a character is thinking.
• In the car, on his smartphone, text-messaging with his friends, Glenn alternates between reading and typing. He has made a game of trying to anticipate what his friends will type next in response to what he has just typed, and with some friends, on some topics, he bats 1000. He also has strong views about how emojis can be more persuasive than words in some conversations because their meaning is often fuzzy and open to interpretation.
• Sitting in his sixth-grade social studies classroom, reading his social studies textbook, Glenn’s go-to method is to turn the information on the page into a movie in his head. This works well on some pages (e.g., with descriptions of wars and battles) and less well on others (e.g., with information about changing agricultural methods). With his textbook, he also sometimes voices the words in his head in the style of a play-by-play sports announcer—which he says helps him stay focused when the information is boring.
• In the cafeteria at lunch with his “gamer” friends, Glenn co-reads a how-to book about a favorite video game (e.g., Minecraft: Redstone Handbook). When he is not  reading, he is envisioning game situations in which a particular how-to tip could be applied. As Glenn and his friends exchange ideas, they interrupt each other with objections and alternate ideas, which sends everyone back to the book to check for details that support or disqualify their ideas.
• At the dining room table, at his mother’s laptop, Glenn searches a video-game wiki (e.g., Minecraft Wiki) for usable information and now also with an eye for authorship and sourcing. A few months ago, a friend who tried to add a new page to the wiki had that page deleted by a more senior wiki author/administrator, and this event sparked Glenn’s curiosity. Now he uses a reading process that looks at the “layers” under the wiki’s top layer. He looks at the history of the page he’s on and enjoys scanning the “talk” page to see the disagreements among editors about what the page should include or exclude.
• Still on his mother’s laptop, having logged into his account at a popular learn-how-to-code website (e.g., CodeCombat.com), Glenn composes lines of code, clicks Run to see how the code he has written changes the movements of a digital character, and then meticulously rereads what he has written to fix mistakes. He’s keenly aware that even a single letter or punctuation mark in the wrong place can cause a problem.

From Glenn’s point of view, these ways of reading are all different. They look and feel as different as playing different sports. To be sure, they are all forms of reading (just as different ball sports are all ways of using your body to get a ball into some kind of net), but they are also at the same time significantly different, both in terms of how much he enjoys them and cares about them, and in terms of the cognitive processes and strategies he’s using when he enacts one or another.

Which is why Glenn sometimes tunes out when his ELA teacher tells him and his classmates about “what good readers do.”

Narrow characterizations fail to recognize and leverage the diverse types of reading experiences and expertise that diverse students bring to the classroom, to the page, and to the screen. And that’s a big missed opportunity. As students’ ways of reading diversify, and as students bring more and more specialized reading expertise and varied reading MOs to the classroom, it behooves us as teachers to enlarge our awareness—and to find ways to build on what our students know and do as readers, even when what they know and do is not the academic reading we privilege.

Paul Morsink is an assistant professor in Reading and Language Arts at Oakland University in Michigan.

This article is part of a series from the International Literacy Association’s Technology in Literacy Education Special Interest Group (TILE-SIG).